Galileo Galilei was a mathematician. Galileo Galilei is the reason why the motion of accelerated objects is studied in physics classes in colleges and high schools today. Galilei studied the theory of kinematics. Galileo Galilei was a very scholarly man, who always wanted to learn more. In 1609, he heard of an invention in the Netherlands, which made objects being viewed seem closer than they really are. He began trying to simulate the lenses of this new invention to see if it would work. Galilei finally successfully created a basic telescope in which the concave or convex lens could be used. On his third attempt at making the telescope he created one that could magnify things 1000 times its size. Usually, back then, telescopes were used for navigation over land and sea, but he liked to use the telescope to explore what was in the sky. This was the beginning of many fascinating discoveries for Galileo Galilei. He first discovered the structure of the moon and what was on it like, for instance, craters. He also began to realize how many stars really were in the sky. Then he began observing the other planets. He noticed that there were three bright objects close to Jupiter and observed their patterns over a number of nights. Then he observed a fourth one and explained how those were satellites around Jupiter and revolved around the sun. This is how Galileo Galilei came to the conclusion that the sun was the center of the universe.

He presented his findings to the world by publishing “The Starry Messenger” as a display of his observations. Galilei’s observations were published and read all over. It received much praise, but also much criticism. Soon after this he had discovered the phases of Venus, which helped to confirm his faith in Copernicus. He also published “Discourse on Floating Bodies” which attacked Aristotleian physics. It resulted in his work being challenged in four articles. He also published “Letters on Sunspots” and “Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems”. He got to meet well known people because of their admiration for his work.

He made numerous discoveries like what determines the rate at which a pendulum swings. He also demonstrated the principles of gravity around 50 years before Isaac Newton. All of his disoveries and insightful observations contributed so much to the Scientific Revolution. Galileo Galilei was the wonderful beginning of Modern Science.

Niccolo Machiavelli (see super-hot picture above) can easily be considered one of the greatest individuals in history, in that he was one of the most influential theorists in the realm of politics. As political agendas tend to have an effect on economics, social standards, and even culture, one could even say Machiavelli has affected every aspect of history we as Mr. Smart’s AP students have been taught to consider relevant.

In fact, the very manner in which students were prepared for the AP test was an implementation of Machiavelli’s principal theory that “the ends justify the means”, because they were allowed to choose from a wide variety of means in order to gain the highest score on the test. Students could look at key terms, actually read the book, buy a 5 steps to a 5 test prep book, use practice questions, play online games, learn from discussions amongst themselves, or even in the case of one student: create color-coded flashcards. Which method each of them chose, whether it was silly or obsessive or full of procrastination, was unimportant because the end result, the scores, was what had value to both Mr. Smart and to his students. So as long as one got the end he/she desired, his/her method was considered to have been an appropriate choice. But not only do Machiavelli’s political philosophies have impact on our everyday lives, but also were at the root of many huge moments in the world’s history.

To understand why Niccolo Machiavelli should be considered so immensely influential, we must examine his life’s story as well as consider the global after-effects of his being alive. Machiavelli was born in 1469 in Florence, Italy, as the son of a middle-class juror. So as a child he got to witness the way “justice” was carried out in Florence.

He grew up and entered politics by participating in the faction that brought down Savonarola, the religious leader who held political power in Florence. Machiavelli worked his way up to being secretary and a second chancellor for Florence. This lead him to go on political “missions” and introduced him to the murdering, scheming Cesare Borgia. Many hypothesize that Borgia was Machiavelli’s inspiration for The Prince because of the man’s willingness to even resort to poisoning people in order to further his political objectives (like staying in power). Unfortunately for Machiavelli, he was kicked out of his government position when the Medici family took power in Florence. They also happened to torture him and exile him for being a republican (not the GOP kind, the “we want a republic like in ancient Rome” kind).The cruelty of the Medici family may have been another inspiration for Machiavelli’s theories on maintaining power at any cost. At any rate, he never was able to regain his political position of power in Florence, and he died in 1527.

His writings (he had many others besides The Prince, such as The Discourses on Livy)  really only became famous after his death. Yet the basic theories in his writings are put into practice throughout history, across cultures in different areas of the world. This man is great because he was able to observe how different politicians worked, and was brave enough to tell the truth about what he saw happening. Even though he was subjected to torture by the Medici, that is the same type of ruler he writes of as being effective at keeping power.It is true. The Medici had ruled Florence for centuries, were exiled, and managed to come back and attain absolute power again and keep it for many years. Bitter as he should have been about what he noticed, he put into words what others would subconsciously act upon but would not say: that if the outcome has enough value for an individual, he/she will feel morally justified in the means he/she must use to attain that outcome. Also, that if the outcome is power, the means often must include unpleasant actions on the part of the ruler.

You may be thinking, well this is cool, but why can one argue that Machiavelli’s philosophies actually affect the course of human history?

The answer is because of rulers like Stalin, who was willing to kill his opposition to keep control, to let people starve, to control every aspect of life in the USSR, in order to get to his “ends” of Socialism, Industrialization of the USSR, and continuous power for himself (naturally). Stalin used  Machiavellian theory, whether intentionally or not. If he had not, it is likely the Cold War would have ended much sooner than it did, and the Korean and Vietnam wars might not have occurred, there might have been no Space Race, the list of historical events goes on.

The answer is because of Hitler, who used Machiavellian philosophy in order to gain and to maintain control over Germany. The end he desired, that of a prosperous, world-dominating, pure Aryan race to Hitler was worth enough to justify the means. These means included militarization, which ended up leading to expansion into neighboring states and contributed to the start of WWII. They also included the violations of human rights of over 11 million people (the Holocaust) who Hitler considered to be impure and “parasites”. Without use of Machiavelli’s political principle, Hitler would not have been able to justify his violent actions to the German people and the German soldiers serving him, and would have lost favor in Germany which likely would have meant he never would have gotten into the position of global influence that he did, the Holocaust would never have occurred, so Israel probably never would have been created, and a TON of the Middle Eastern conflicts in the later half of the 20th century would not have occurred.(The Israeli-Palestinian conflict going on currently probably wouldn’t be happening, either).

The answer is because of Henry the VIII, who was willing to change the religious affiliation of his entire nation, and behead two of his wives, in order to try to reach the “end” of having a male heir…these are merely a few examples of Machiavellian philosophy in play.

It does not matter whether these men actually read Niccolo Machiavelli’s books,the point is that the philosophy Machiavelli wrote about is what happened when those choices, those rationalizations, were made by all of these historically influential figures. Without Machiavelli, there would have been no written, fully formed expression of HOW these people did what they did when the methods were so immoral. He said what others thought subconsciously. Niccolo Machiavelli is the greatest individual in history for understanding the hows and whys of the decision-making people who had a large effect on their world used, use, and will continue to use in the future.

On February 12, 1809, in Shrewsbury, England, the greatest individual in history was born, Charles Darwin. Charles Darwin’s early life was not very good. He was kicked out of school in Shrewsbury because he was doing very poorly. He also dropped out of a medical course at Endinburgh University because he was revolted by working on bodies. After this however, his life improved greatly. He really became interested in natural history after being at Cambrige, preparing to go into a life in the church. However, he did not go into that life. He came up with the Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection. The Theory of Evolution was a theory that Darwin came up with where he theorized that humans evolved from another animal. He theorized that they evolved from primates. He came up with this theory in 1859. This theory also stated that all life is related and evolved from a common ancestor. Natural Selection is how animals with certain genetic advantages caused by a mutation or something else, survive and thrive over those without that advantage. For example, if a member of a species somehow develops an advantagious trait, such as wings or a beak, that trait will stay with the species as they reproduce. The ones without the trait will die off because they are less equipped than those with it. He came up with this theory by traveling the world on his boat the Beagle for five years. In 1831, after he graduated from the University of Cambrige, he sailed on this boat alongside other natualists studying and investigating the geology and natual selection. Probably the most famous investigation he did was in the Galapagos Island. He compared finches and Mockingbirds with ones in Chile and he found evidence to support his theory of natural selection. Charles Darwin also wrote a book, Origin of Species. In this book, he first made his theories known. With these new theories he came up with, Charles Darwin taght us humans alot about our past. His theories went against everyones beliefs which was that God had created everyone. His Theory of Evolution was widely accepted by many including scientiest and churches. His theory of natural selection was even accepted by the liberal Angicans, who interpreted it as a way God designed different species. The Church oof England, however, reacted against the theory. There was also a mixed reaction in the scientific community. There were many public debates on his book and his theories. His book and theories also infuenced many other publications of books. For example,  Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature by Thomas Huxley, which showed that anatomically, humans were apes. Also, The Naturalist on the River Amazon by Henry Walter Bates, showed even more evidence about Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Darwin’s thoery of natural selection is very important also because it affected and influenced science and religion. In the field of science, Darwin’s theory pretty much founded the field of biology and evolution. In religion, Darwin’s theory pretty much eliminated the need for a central creator of man, like God. Charles Darwin’s theory has also influenced and impacted society. Because of Darwin’s theory of natural selection, the idea of “social darwinism”, or survival of the fittest. This idea of social darwinism is known as “the survival of the fittest”, which means that the one who is adapted the best to survive, will survive and the others will die off. This is like the theory which says that the member of a species with the genetic advantage will thrive, while the others without it won’t. The idea of social darwinism is widely used by the whole world to explain many things. For example, some people used it negatively in racism. They tried to prove that thier race is superior to others and that they will survive over others because of that. This can also explain how Adolf Hitler thought, in my opinion. Although this term was used in racism and slavery, Charles Darwin was strongly against slavery and did not share the idea of racism that most people had back then. Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection and social Darwinism was also widely used by people to explain different ideologies such as warfare, imperialism, and laissez-faire. Charles Darwin is the greatest individual in history because his studies and theories greatly influenced the whole world in many ways. Everything from religion to science to society was impacted by Darwin’s theory of evolution and natural selection.

Bob Marley is considered by many to be one most influential musicians of all time. His album Legend went ten times platinum in the U.S and was ranked forty-six in Rollin Stones best five hundred albums. Bob Marley spread a message of love and peace and fought against racism and inequality through his music and way of life.

 Bob Marley was born February 6, 1945 on his mother farm in the poor section of Jamaica.  His mother Cedella was black and his father Captain Norval Sinclair Marley was white. Because of his mixed heritage and short stature he was the target of discrimination and bullying. Bob Marley commented on this saying “I don’t have prejudice against meself. My father was a white and my mother was black. Them call me half-caste or whatever. Me don’t dip on nobody’s side. Me don’t dip on the black man’s side nor the white man’s side. Me dip on God’s side, the one who create me and cause me to come from black and white.”Though Bob was sent to live with his father for a short time when he was young, he never really knew his father very well. Captain Marley died while Bob was young.. Cedella moved to Kinston to earn a better living and soon sent for Bob to come live with her in the Kingston west side ghetto called Trench town.

(Middle)

 In trench town Bob started listening to the radio and developing musical talent with his friends Neville “Bunny” Livingstone and Peter Tosh. At sixteen he recorded his first song “Judge Not” “One Cup of Coffee” and “Terror”. A record producer Clement Dodd gave Bob a room in the back of the studio to stay in while he was recording in exchange for favors. One of these favors included coaching a vocal group, where he met his wife to be, Rita Anderson, whom he married in 1966. While under Dodd Bob Marley recorded “One Love”. The song incorporated all the things that he has been known to stand for Peace, Love, and Unity.

            Bob had a lull in his music after “One Love” until 1973. During this down period Bob moved to Willimington, Delaware with his wife and mother. He worked various jobs in Delaware trying to earn enough money to start his own record company in Jamaica. While in Delaware Bob did pursue music but did not agree with the record producers. His producers tried to persuade him to water down the Rastafarian themes in his music and he responded saying “Don’t gain the world and lose your soul, wisdom is better than silver or gold…” Bob then moved his family back to Jamaica so that he could earn a living working in a factory.

            Bob Marley did some music work in Jamaica and came back into the mainstream when he released his first international album “Catch a Fire” in 1973. This album was also the first full length Reggae album to be created. A year later The Wailers released the album “Burnin” which included the hits “Get Up, Stand Up” and “I Shot the Sherriff” which was re-recorded by Eric Clapton, giving them further international exposure. During this year of success the other two original Wailers left the band to pursue solo careers. Bob continued and used the Wailers name and formed an all new band with his wife Rita singing back up with two other women, calling themselves the “I Threes”.

With his new band in place Bob Marley put out his first international Hit “No Woman, No Cry” in 1975. In 1976 Bob Marley’s career took off with him performing many tours and appearing on the cover of Time Magazine. This year also contained one of the most painful memories of his life. On December 3, at 8:45 an assassination attempt was made on Bob Marley’s life. Bob his wife, and manager were shot but only his wife and manager were seriously injured. That night Bob went on to perform at his concert.

Bob Marley continued to gain fame and recognition until his death on May 11, 1981 in Miami, Florida from cancer. Bob suffered an injury to his big toe while playing soccer in 1977. Doctors suggested that because it was infected it should be amputated but Bob’s Rastafarian beliefs did not allow him to because according to the religion the body was to be kept whole. The cancer spread to his lungs, stomach, liver, and brain, her was thirty six when he died.  His final words before he died were to his son Ziggy, he said “Money can’t buy life”. Bob Marley was buried according to his specifications with his guitar, his ring given to him by Prince Asfa Wossen of Ethiopia, a soccer ball, a marijuana bud, and a bible.

 Bob Marley was only thirty-six years old when he died, but his music lives on and still spreads a message of Peace, Love, Hope and Unity, today some 28 years later. His CD ‘Legend’ a collection of his greatest hits went ten times multiplatinum, and is the highest selling reggae album in history. Bob Marley and his music are still as popular today as it was then if not more, his music is timeless and will continue to inspire the youth and old of the world for countless generations.

Louie Pasture was a famous french scientist who was born on December 27 1822 in the french town of Dole (Remember that everytime you chug down its canned fruit). He was the son of a veteran of Napoleons Grand Army, Louie Pasture and his family moved to Arbois where he completed his primary and secondary school education but this was only the beginning of his walk to greatness. He attended the Royal College where he got his BA degree then he went on to study chemistry at the Ecole Normale Superiuere in Paris. After all that he then gained a doctrate of philosophy and also a doctrate in physics. Louie then married the daughter a of rector in the University of Strasbourg, her name was Marie Laurent. They had five children together but unfortunately only two of them actually survived their childhood. Louie was drawn into studying fermentation when he was contacted by an industrialist who wanted to know why his alcohol was turning sour shortly after fermentation which is the process by which alcohol is made. This was what made Louie so famous. As his study progressed he found out that in fermentation the yeast that was used was actually an organism that was capable of anaerobic reproduction which basically reproduction without the use of oxygen. This process is now known as the pasteur effect. After many experiments and trials he finally found out that when wine(yay) was to be formed the right yeast had to be used or else lactic acid(yuck) would be produced. In addition to that the yeast the had to be heated to 50 degrees C to encourage the bacteria to produce alcohol rather than sour lactic acid this process is now know as pasteurization. Although this was developed for alcohol it was used for many other beverages such as milk and yohgurt. This process is very beneficial because it gives the drinks a longer shelf life and slows  down the process of it turning sour when not refrigerated. Everytime you open a bottle of milk and take a sip just think “Thanks to Louis my milk is not sour… mmhhhmmm refreshing”.

(Wow… He looks so Great!!! (Hint))

This was not the only important thing Louie did he also pioneered in many other aspects of science. For instance he disproved the theory of spontaneous generation which was a very prominent topic during his time. The conundrum was that although there were organisms in yeast and their growth was sped by the introduction of air where there always organisms in the air or where they spontaneously generated. This caused quite a problem in the scientific community because people were unsure of what the answer was and everyones experiments were not producing any results. Then guess who comes along and dispels all speculation… Yes Louis Pasture comes along and proves there are always invisible organisms in the air and that they are not spontaneoulsy generated. This shows how much of a pioneer he was in his field.

No I am not done yet, Louie’s greatness does not end in the lab here it still goes on.  He even saved the silk industry!!!! In France there was a disease that was killing the silkworms that France were using to support their industry. So the mayor had a brilliant idea “When the silkworms are dying and you dont know why. Who you gonna call???? Louie Pasteur!!!(X3). Through extensive research he found out that the silkworms were being killed by a parasite that was infecting them. Then he thought of a brilliant idea why not cordon off the infected worms and destroy them so that they do not infect the healthy worms. This led to the use of quarantine to better understand new diseases that could possibly become epidemics. With this Louie was able to single-handedly the silk business so next time you feel that smooth silk against your skin think “Louie saved the worms who made this.”

(Thanks to Louie finding a vaccine for the horrible disease Anthrax. This wont be you…)

He does it again!!! He’s not satified with the hat-trick nooo he wants more!!!! OMG I dont believe it he made the vaccine to the incurable disease rabies. Louie had been experimenting with animal saliva then he discovered the virus that resides in the nervous system of the animals that it affects. Louie then developed the only way to test for rabies which is a sample extracted from the infected animals medulla oblongata also known as the brain stem. With many samples Louie diluted the virus down to a safe enough level to be used in humans. The vaccine was proved to be a sucess when it saved the life of Joseph Meister, a nine year old boy who had been bitten by a rabid dog. Oh no the story does not end there your boy Louie also developed a vaccine for Anthrax. His German rival had showed that the bacteria release heat resistant spores which survive in fields. Determined not to be beaten Louie set out to find a vaccine. After many studies he was able to culture the bacteria and produce a vaccine that was used to protect the animals which this disease was affecting. Well that was just a taste of what this Great man did. Due to his innovations he was able to greatly change how the norm of that time. He is the one responsible for the many vaccines that keep us all safe at home not afraid to go outside because of rabid animals and anthrax bombs. I do not think that I have to further explain why he is the greatest individual. The proof is in the fermented alcohol. Louie is the man!!!

(You wont pet it though… But thanks to Louie now you can.)

Sources:

http://web.ukonline.co.uk/b.gardner/pasteur.htm

http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/95dec/pasteur.html

http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/AB/BC/Louis_Pasteur.php

Triangles:The Unsung Heroes

As an age of discovery, science and technology, mathematics is the basis upon which our society is built. In our modern world, it is nearly impossible to go through one minute without depending upon one triangle. Within a home, sky scraper, school, or office, hundreds of triangles support the stress of the building effortlessly. Often times these triangles are right angle triangles.  Right angle triangles are used because of their structural superiority over equilateral, isosceles or other triangles. Right triangles are also versatile and are combined to make other shapes (squares, rectangles, octagons). There are an incalculable amount of triangles used in our world today, they often just go unnoticed.

Pythagoras’s Life is Kind of “Sketch”… Was This Theorem Stolen?

There is evidence of knowledge of a relationship between the length of sides of a triangle and the right angle. It is believe that Egyptians used a triangle, whose sides were measured with equidistant knotted rope, to construct perfect corners on their buildings and temples. These triangles measured 3 units on the shortest side, 4 units on the middle side, and 5 units on the longest side. A traditional Pythagorean Triple. There is no evidence that Egyptians had any knowledge of the a2, b2, c2 relationship, but there is evidence that Pythagoras learned from Egyptians and may have derived his formula and used this triangle as a basis.

Pythagoras Did Not Discover the Triangle, So Why Him?

Although Pythagoras did not discover the triangle, the relationship that he discovered is the basis for other mathematical terms and theorems of high importance. For example, the pythagorean triple is a relationship between three numbers, each of which represent the length of a side of a triangle, that can be combined to make a right triangle. These triples are used in several contractor tools, like the Contractor’s Triangle. Pythagoras’s discovery opened a door that lead to other theorems and a more advanced community mathematically.

So… What Else Did This Triangle Man Do?

Pythagoras did not only spend his days fooling with triangles. He left influences in religion, music, literature and science. Pythagoras believed that everything had a mathematical relationship and that these relationships often repeated in patterns. Pythagoras started schools in Samos, the island of his birth, and Croton, a city in Italy. Pythagoras taught mathematics along with the sciences, music, and morale. He taught about the justice within equality and the importance of having respect for elders within one’s community. Pythagoras also developed a brotherhood where members worshiped mathematics and attempted to reduce all relationships into mathematical terms.

What About Those of Us Who Hate Math? What Does He Have To Do With Us?

Pythagoras not only discovered a crucial relationship within triangles, but he applied mathematics to every and any situation mankind could be faced with. Pythagoras is believed to have made several predictions involving the universe, relationships, etc. This may make Pythagoras seem like a bit of a “dork” but his experimenting and rigid love and passion for the art of mathematics is exactly what lead him to make the discoveries that he made and open the doors that he opened for future generations to come. Pythagoras is considered the “Father of Numbers” because of this passion that he seemed to have possessed like no one before, or after, his time.

So Wrap It Up. Why Is This Guy More Then Just A Square?

Pythagoras is more than just a square. He is the Greatest Individual in history. Pythagoras had passion in THE GREATEST subject of time. Mathematics. Some might just consider him a math freak, but aren’t we all? Don’t we all interact and depend upon math in one way or another, everyday? Don’t we all use some derivation of this beautiful theorem in every class? Even a student with psychology as a major has to have some mathematic credits under their belt. Mathematics is universal, it is the same in every language, it explains anything, in one way or another.

Pythagoras is the man. Point, blank and simple. He is, single handedly, the greatest individual in history because history, or ourstory, would not be the same with out him.

Plus, he could probably karate chop you with his mind.

“Choose rather to be strong of soul than strong of body.” -Pythagoras

In his early life Einstein did not finish high school, but instead applied to Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule, after not getting in, his parents sent him to a Swedish secondary school. After graduating at 17 he moved to Zurich, Germany to attend the Polytechnic in Zurich. He published his first paper on capillary action by his graduation, with help from classmate and long-time friend Michele Besso.

He then took work in a patent office, and enjoyed this because it allowed him to think. During this job he began to think about light and time in relation to all things. He discovered that the speed of light is always constant, no matter how fast a person or object is moving, the light will hit it at the same speed. He also discovered many things about gravity and space. For example, he theorized that there were four dimensions that all objects in the universe occupied, length, width, height, and time. The time dimension meant that as things moved in space they all moved in time, and even if something stopped moving in space it would still be moving in time. For example, he theorized that if there were a set of twins and one went into space and the other stayed on Earth, then when the one came back from space he would be substantially younger than the one on Earth. This is because the twin in space was traveling almost at the speed of light, thus causing time to go slower. This changed the world’s view of reality immensely. Einstein showed the world that nothing was absolute that two events could never actually occur at the same time if they were viewed at two different reference points. He proved this by saying that if a person was standing next to a railroad track and lightning hit the train at both the front and the end, than that person observing would say that the lightning striked at exactly the same time. However, if a person inside the train moving forward saw the same occurrence then they would say that the one in the front struck first because the light has less distance to travel to reach the person that the light of the bolt striking the back of the train. That’s not all though, he also discovered many new things about quanta, or molecular objects like atoms. Things that would later change the view of science forever. He theorized that the random movement of small objects was due to molecular action and he also found the equation E=mc² which described that small amounts of mass could be converted into huge amounts of energy, which jumpstarted the research on nuclear power. After all of this though, Einstein decided to tackle the theory of gravity. He theorized that gravity and acceleration were equivalent. For example, if an astronaut was traveling through space he would be floating in the spacecraft, but as the spacecraft accelerated, he would come down to the floor of the spacecraft and would be able to stand on it. The same principle is applied when saying that if a person was in an elevator when the cable snapped, the person and the elevator would fall at the same rate because gravity has the same pull on both objects. This made him the most influential man in science in the mid-1900s and that had many repercussions through the rest of the 20^th century and during the 21^st century, today.

Why is this important? Why do Einstein’s achievements make him the most influential man in history? Because if Einstein had never discovered these things then science today would be very different, in that we would still be trying to figure out the different qualities of space and time and we would not be as nearly as technologically advanced as we are now. Not only would we still think that time was still absolute but we would also have no idea about nuclear science because the fact that atoms could create large amounts of energy would never have been discovered. Einstein, the Nobel prize-winning, isolated, comical, studied his entire life in order to change everything people knew about science and should be named the greatest individual in history because of that.

 [I wanted to put these in but they won't work. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=62yHCse9qDY&NR=1 and http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v7jJnOQJZzc]

It wasn’t all smiles and laughs for Newton. He had a rough childhood, and I think that one of the reasons he was so great was because he was able to overcome this adversity and still affect so many people. Isaac Newton was born just after midnight on Christmas Day in 1642. Newton was not expected to live long because he was a premature baby, and was very unhealthy. His father died three months before his death, leaving his mother to care for Isaac on her own. Although he was not expected to live, he survived his first year of life and flourished afterward. Isaac’s mother remarried when he was three years old to a man named Barnabas Smith. Newton did not like his stepfather, and this man was largely responsible for Isaac’s struggles as a young child.

When he first started attending school at Grantham grammar school, he was not considered to be a brilliant student. He obtained mediocre grades and was not very well liked by his classmates. The reason he was not doing so well in school was that he was spending most of his time on his individual projects. He spent his time making models, kites, sundials, and mechanical devices. He even made a full working wind mill that was used in town. It was clear early on that Newton had a knack for science. After a while at school, his genius started to show when he began to concentrate more on his school work. His talent was recognized by the headmaster of the school, and this headmaster was the one who convinced Isaac’s mother that it was right to send Isaac to a university for further study. His mother was not such an agreeable woman, and she only agreed to it because whenever Isaac was at the farm, he was thinking about his inventions and was no help at all.

Although Hannah, Isaac’s mother, had agreed to let Isaac go to school, she had not agreed to pay for it. Therefore, for the first 2 years of his schooling at Cambridge University, Isaac had to work for his tuition. He worked for the more wealthy students on campus, and was embarrassed by the tasks that they made him perform. After this grueling childhood, it would take a genius of a man and a hard working individual to achieve all that Isaac Newton did. Newton was up to the task, and performed it well. Soon after his arrival at Cambridge, he enrolled at Trinity College, a branch of Cambridge. This is where Newton would spend the next forty years of his life.

After his first two months at Trinity, it would become clear to Newton that his studies were not going to be particularly challenging. Because his studies did not pose a big problem for him, he had plenty of time to investigate his own theories. The following is a page from Isaac Newton’s journal during his years at Trinity. I think this portrays his genius because it shows how vast his interests were. He wanted to study everything he could in order to gain the truth about the universe. It read, “

Some Philosophical Questions

    I am a friend of Plato, I am a friend of Aristotle, but truth is my greater friend.

-Of Water and Salt

-Attraction Magnetical

-Of the Sun Stars and Planets and Comets

-Of Gravity and Levity”

When Newton was close to finishing his undergraduate degree at Trinity, disaster hit England. The Bubonic Plague killed many people, and his school shut down. One would think that this would hinder Newton’s ability to study and evolve his concepts, but the coming year he spent at his home in Woolsthorpe would come to be known as “The Miraculous Year”. During this time he invented a system of mathematics that, “made it possible to develop coordinates of distance and time and to derive expressions that designated speed, velocity, and acceleration” (Boerst, page 44). Newton’s new system of mathematics made it possible to quantify bodies that were constantly changing over time. His system was truly remarkable, and is still used in the world today. Virtually every branch of engineering uses calculus. It is used to build buildings, mix chemicals and develop reaction rates, build cars, create most electronic and magnetic devices, travel to space, launch rockets, build circuits, and fly airplanes and helicopters. Without the development of calculus, further progress in technical fields would be impossible. It is through Newton’s work that technology has progressed so much during the last 200 years.

If you can believe it, Newton’s development of calculus was not the most important thing that he did during his years stay at Woolsthorpe. During his stay, he was interested in studying optics, or the nature of light. These experiments were some of the more dangerous ones that could be conducted. During one experiment, Newton found it necessary to stare into the Sun for as long as he could stand. He ended up going blind for three days after this experiment. His dedication to his work and arduous attempts to find out the truth are what make Newton a great individual. His studies about Optics were very influential in what is called “Modern Physics”. Newton used prisms to investigate theories of reflection, refraction, dispersion, and defraction. Newton also looked into the electromagnetic spectrum. The most important invention that he created had to do with optics. In the 1670s, Isaac built a new, more powerful telescope. He called his telescope a reflecting telescope. It was revolutionary because it provided a clear picture and scientists were able to see much further into space.

As if this wasn’t enough, Newton made one more discovery that would get him discovered by England’s most prestigious scientific community, the Royal Society. During his time at Woolsthorpe, Newton discovered the theory of gravity. He discovered that no matter where you threw something or if something fell, it would always fall towards earth because of gravity. Newton’s theory came to him as he was sitting under an apple tree and an apple fell towards Earth and onto his head. After this major revelation, he joined the Royal Society, and eventually climbed to the top of the organization, stopping anyone who opposed his views, which he knew to be correct.

Isaac Newton was a truly remarkable individual. He made groundbreaking discoveries in mathematics, optics, and gravity. His influence in the scientific world helped to create the majority of the technology that we have today. The fact that Newton was able to overcome the adversity that he faced during his childhood and become such a great scientist was an amazing feat.

Newton ponders his theory of gravity under an apple tree

Sources Cited

White, Michael. Isaac Newton: Discovering Laws That Govern the Universe. Woodbridge: Blackbirch P Inc, 1999.

Boerst, William J. Isaac Newton: Organizing the Universe. Greensboro: Morgan Reynolds Inc, 2004.

Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland on March 1847 to Professor Alexander Melville Bell and Eliza Grace. He had two brothers, Melville James Bell and Edward Charles Bell, who both died of Tuberculosis. He was educated at Edinburgh high school and Edinburgh University. He also received special training in removing speech impediments from his father who was an Elocutionist. Even as a child, Bell had a nack for tinkering and inventing. His first invention was a simple dehusking machine to help a childhood friend, which he made at the age of 12.

When Bell was 16, he began his first experiments with sound. Bell’s father encouraged his boy’s interest in speech and took them to see a “mechanical man” which could simulate a human voice. The boys were intrigued by the idea, so they obtained a copy of developer’s book and set out to build their own. Once finished, after adjusting the so called lips and blowing air through the windpipe, they could make the figure say ‘mama.’ This first experiment led him to take up his first serious work on the transmission of sound using tuning forks. He wrote a report on his work and sent it to a colleague of his father, only to find out that the work has already been done by a German. Bell quickly found his book and after translating it, came to the conclusion that, “Without knowing much about the subject, it seemed to me that if vowel sounds could be produced by electrical means so could consonants, so could articulate speech.” Bell moved to the United States with his father to introduce his father’s system of deaf mute instruction and became professor of vocal physiology at Boston University. In between teaching classes and tutoring pupils, he found very little time to continue his experiments and generally ended up staying all night experimenting. Deciding to concentrate on his experiments, he quit his job. After beginning experiments with the “phonautograph,” Bell met up with two wealthy patrons, who after learning that Bell was working on a way of sending multiple tones on a telegraph wire, they decided to finance his experiments. His patrons also had an attorney that would take care of any pattent matters. After realizing how close he was to a great invention, he discovered that he did not have the necessary knowledge to complete it. With the financial support of his patrons, Bell was able to hire Thomas Watson as his assistant. With his newfound assistant Bell was able to experiment with acoustic telegraphy, soon being able to pluck a reed on one end and being able to hear the overtone on the other. This little discovery led Bell to believe that only one reed was necessary for acoustic transmission, leading to the “gallows sound powered telephone.” A year later, Bell was able to get his telephone to work using a liquid transmitter. Vibration of the diaphragm caused a needle to vibrate in the water which varied the electrical resistance in the circuit. When Bell spoke the famous sentence “Mr Watson — Come here —I want to see you” into the liquid transmitter, Watson, in the other room heard the words clearly. Bell continued his experiments to test how distances would effect transmission of sounds, to prove that even with a make shift wire, it could be done. Bell began to demonstrate his invention, and only one day after a demonstration of an early prototype, it made a worldwide headline. In 1877, the Bell Telephone Company was created and by 1886, 150,000 people in the US had a telephone.

Bell’s interest in experimentation did not vanish with the invention of the telephone. He continued to experiment in any and every field. The range of his later experiments can be guaged by the patents he received for his inventions which included 5 for aerial vehicles, 4 for hydroairplanes and 2 for selenium cells, just to name a few. Two of his greatest later inventions were the metal detector and hydrofoils. Some say Bell was the inventor of the metal detector in that he created a crude one to find the bullet in body of President Garfield.

Telephones and metal detectors. What would we do without Alexander Bell? Without his invention, we wouldn’t have our ever so precious cellphones that most say they cannot live without. Also there would be no stereotypical creepy old man on the beach with a metal detector, and what would the beach be without that guy? All in all, when it comes down to it, I think that the telephone beats great music or theories or any of that, and I think you should too.

Places where I obtained information about the greatest individual EVER:

http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bltelephone2.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell

http://www.alexandergrahambell.org/

I obtained the pictures from wikipedia and alexandergrahambell.org

So as we all know the environment…. not doing so well.  Is it not one of the main focuses of the 21st century to go green?  Everywhere you look girls have those new tote bags that say go green, kids are being taught the three r’s song about reusing reducing and recycling and no one can ignore those save the polar bear commercials.  It is obvious that the world society is taking any measures they can to help. Just look at Oakland Mills…. We have our own environmental club and class, have recycle bins for both cans and paper in every classroom, and we use the most energy efficient lights we can.  I mean Mr.Smart said it himself one day that our generation could be classified as the generation of saving the environment.  But do we know where the environmental movement started?…

It all began with an incredible woman named Rachel Carson.  Rachel Carson was born May 27, 1907 and grew up in Springdale, Pennsylvania (which is a city by a major river) being taught to love and value nature. Carson wrote a lot as a child and began college as an english major, but later changed her major to biology. She began working as a marine biologist and wrote books on the side. Eventually she took a job at the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries as a writer. During her time there she published many marine biology books which expressed “the view that human beings were but one part of nature distinguished primarily by their power to alter it, in some cases irreversibly.” (Rachel Carson Homestead) Rachel Carson then turned her main focus to protecting nature as a whole. 

Now you’re thinking …Okay so what… she wrote books promoting the environment right? Well yeah but Rachel Carson’s books not only provided the start for a great movement (that is a major issue today) but also caused the controversial switch to non-harmful pesticides and she has received many honors. 

Out of all her works her most famous and influential book was Silent Spring.  In this book she argued that popular pesticides at the time were harming both the environment and humans.  Although she got attacked by many pesticide agencies and chemical plants, Carson ignored all that and fully supported her stance.  Carson even went to Congress to testify on the issue of the pesticides.  Although Carson did not directly go out and protest the pesticides and other issues, her books and support on issues caused many largely impacting changes.  Many argued that DDT was helpful in killing malaria carrying mosquitos but Carson’s support that they were also harmful to humans and other creatures ended in the government banning of DDT (the most used pesticide, but also one of most harmful at the time).  Prior to this the government did not really care too much about the good of the environment and was more focused on winning the World Wars and winning the Arms Race in the Cold War. Through Carson’s efforts the government became quite involved in the environment.  The government began passing many laws that stopped harming and began helping the environment and eventually created the Environmental Protection Agency.  The Environmental Protection Agency has been a major contributer to the movement and so necessary to gain any ground with the movement.  Even today many political icons such as Al Gore are continuing the fight to preserve the environment. 

 So I don’t know about you all but I think that Rachel Carson was pretty cool (and by that I mean great). I am not the only one who thinks she is so great.  Her books have received many honors including John Burroughs Medal, the National Book Award,  and the Schweitzer Medal of Animal Welfare.  Not just her books have been recognized but how impacting and amazing she was has been widely renowned.  Even the President of the United States gave her the Presidential Medal of Freedom!!!! (For those of you that do not know what that medal is it is the highest degree of honor an American civilian can receive for anything period)  Even Time Magazine has acknowledged her as one of the top 100 people of all history.  They even credited her with being “the cornerstone of new environmentalism”.  Translation: Time Magazine, the most well respected magazines ever, has contributed the environment movement to her.  (How cool is that?)

Okay let’s review… Rachel Carson started the environment movement, single-handedly caused the controversy that led to the banning of DDT, brought the government into the whole saving the environment thing, and has received countless awards for her books and for her… being her.

Greatest person in history?…

We know that even Presidents and Time Magazine think she is one of them but what about common knowledge? Dictionary.com defines great as…

• wonderful; pretty good (pretty cool person…check)
• important; highly consequential (um…starting environment movement…check)
• having unusual merit (Medal of Freedom…check)
• enthusiastic about something (the whole loving and saving nature thing…check)

From the highest degree of honor achieveable to common dictionary beliefs Rachel Carson is not only one of the greatest individuals in history but also one of the most influential even after 100 years of her birth.

Bibliography

•  “Rachel Carson Biography.” 2006 Web.http://www.rachelcarsonhomestead.org/Home/tabid/36/Default.aspx.
• “Rachel Carson’s Legacy.” 2006 Web.http://www.rachelcarsonhomestead.org/Home/tabid/36/Default.aspx.
• “Rachel Carson’s Biographhy.” 2008
  Web.http://www.rachelcarson.org/Biography.aspx.
• “Accomplishments.” Web.http://www.rockwood.k12.mo.us/Lasalle/stretch/sixth/carson/accomplishments.htm.
• “Rachel Carson.” 29 Mar 1999
  Web.http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/carson.html.
• melindamusic96, “Mitchel Musso -Reuse Reduce Recycle.” YouTube. 05 Feb 2009. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xCzH99uSrRI&feature=related.
• http://www.midamericaplastics.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/gogreenicon1.jpg
• http://www.fws.gov/rachelcarson/graphics/rachelcarson-400.jpg
• “great - definition.” 2009
  Web.http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/great.